1. Introduction
Although it has its roots in the beginning of 1970s Life Cycle Assessment methodology has been mostly established in late 1980s. This technique allows to track life cycle of the product since its production up to the stage of recovery or disposal of waste and seems to be a natural extension of both the strategy for waste management and environmental management systems.
Current waste management strategy assumes strictly defined waste management activities hierarchy, which in most simple terms is:
n waste prevention and
n minimization of its amount.
Avoidance of waste production must be started at the stage of product design and production process. Quantity of used mineral resources, materials, energy, amount of waste generated in the production process should be estimated and the way of recovery or disposal of the final product after its consumption has to be predicted. All those activities have led to the development of inputs-outputs analysis, also known as circulation of material analysis, ecological profile analysis, eco balance, cradle to grave analysis, and to the disposal of products and improvement of companies, competitiveness.
In the scope of life cycle assessment (LCA) one has to analyse the environmental hazards associated with the product throughout its life from cradle to grave. The LCA methodology can be used for the assessment of an actual product, the entire production process and services. LCA allows the assessment of aspects and environmental impacts resulting from all stages of product life, including:
n mining and mineral processing,
n manufacturing (manufacturing process),
n distribution,
n transportation,
n use,
n re-use,
n recycling and other recovery methods,
n final disposal of waste.
International Standard Organization defines LCA as a technique of environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with the product assessment, which includes four phases:
n identification of the purpose and the scope of research,
n inventory of inputs and outputs in the product system,
n potential environmental impacts associated with inputs and outputs of the system assessment,
n interpretation of results.
LCA relates to complex interactions between a product and the environment. Main categories of environmental impacts require taking into consideration human health, natural resources using and the quality of the ecosystem.
LCA method, allows to define the methodology of effective resources management, according to both the environmental and economic aspects. It is therefore a powerful tool in developing ways to reduce consumption of natural resources and energy while maintaining a sufficient supply of goods and services. Additionally LCA analysis can be used to evaluate if used technology is really more environmental friendly than an alternative. Future LCA applications will be integrated with other decision making supporting tools in every situation when environmental issues are important. The availability and scope of information to be analysed in LCA is still growing, which gives the possibility to extend the LCA on new products and application areas. Also together with the increasing of information level LCA analysis will be more and more precise. However only in few cases LCA analysis can be used as a single factor supporting process of making a decision. Analysis using the LCA method should only be used as one of many tools of extended producer responsibility. This concept can be used by state governments as a strategy which allows to make a transfer of management costs, eg. municipal waste, from local government to stakeholders who have the greatest impact on product characteristics. Using LCA method can lead to implementation of optimal and elimination of unfavourable solutions.
Potential area of further development is an integration of LCA with other environment management methods. Most concepts of environment management are missing many indirect environmental aspects, and this can be supplemented by LCA analysis. If we want to develop LCA method as a tool of quantifying of direct and indirect environmental aspects and potential influence exerted in the whole lifecycle of products, some classification of data collection process necessary. Another crucial question concerns the development of agreed methodology of data availability. Both methodologies and data are becoming better documented, which proves, that together with the development of ISO norms according LCA standards, future development of LCA method will be even more satisfying than previously [1], [2].
LCA is one of several techniques of environment management, used to study environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts over the lifetime of the product (i. e. from
cradle to grave) – from resources obtained in production process, through using, up to the stage of waste and recovery or disposal.
Every single product has a specific impact on the environment, and the lifetime cycle of most of them is long and complicated. For that reason it is appropriate to try to minimize the environmental impact in all phases of product’s life cycle, especially in phases, when this impact is greatest, and take action in the most efficient way [3].
Such assumption should also lead to the product manufacturing, using and disposing costs reduction and an increase of companies competitiveness level. Those aspects are the subject of the implementation of integrated product policy strategy in Poland [4], which should lead to the in the systematic using of product life cycle evaluation methods in the future.
When looking specifically at packaging, its life cycle include the production of feedstock materials, production of packaging materials, production of packaging, packing, packaging usage and disposal scenarios. Fig. 1. shows typical packaging life cycle in details.
It should be emphasized that packaging life cycle includes filling phase (packing) and merchandise trade, which links the packaging with the logistics system of goods distribution (most of the are goods are accompanied by the packaging on some stages of trade) [5]. For that reason LCA for packaging can cause additional difficulties. In LCA packaging should be evaluated as a whole, considering such elements as closures, labels, etc.
LCA can become a tool of comparisons of products and processes or the different products and processes components as a part of sustainable development, which gives new possibilities for industrial environment protection, i. e., understanding of environmental impacts associated with industrial areas activity. The questions of modern industrial development should be answered by green chemistry [6].
2. LCA method in environmental assessment of packaging
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method, can be used for environmental assessment of a full cycle of a packaging existence [7]. Even though the LCA methodology has been around for over 30 years it is still a relatively novel technique of environmental management. One of its main aims is to include all factors potentially influencing the environment and associated with a specific product, which may be a product, the process of production or its use, as well as service. Currently LCA method has been standardized, and in European Union it is appreciated and recommended tool of environmental projects assessment in all areas of economic and social activities.
European legal system for packaging waste assumes the development and improvement of LCA methods in packaging evaluation and using it can lead to the reduction of negative impact on the environment. It can also be considered to be the basis for the selection of ecologically appropriate solutions.
LCA in packaging is based on an evaluation of packaging according to different environmental criteria considered in various stages of their life cycle, taking into account factors such as transport, re-use, waste disposal, etc. It is a tool which can show the total impact of packaging on the environment throughout its life cycle, from sourcing of raw materials needed to produce and ending with the stage of recovery or disposal of waste.
LCA is used to calculate the impact of different types of packaging, used for packaging of the same product group to minimize or reduce the negative impact on the environment.
The importance of LCA methods that can be proved by the fact that its results are used in Germany where certain packaging is exempt from the obligatory deposit fee for beverages packaging.
In all German states from January 1st 2003, deposit fee for disposable container for beer, mineral water and carbonated beverages, such as: glass bottles, PET bottles and cans is obligatory. Exempt from the fee are laminate boxes and fruit juices, milk and soft drinks bags. Such exemptions have been justified by good LCA results, which showed that environmental burden resulting from using disposable laminate boxes and bags are the same as when using glass reusable bottles. Definitely greater environmental burden is caused by disposable (glass and plastic) bottles and cans [8].
Fig. 2. schematically shows various stages of packaging life cycle and ecological criteria considered at those stages of LCA implementation.
Guidelines and criteria for performing LCA for packaging have been introduced by CEN Report No. CR 13910. This report is compatible with ISO 14040, which provides general LCA rules for all products. Packaging life cycle assessment includes following phases: definition of the purpose and scope, collection analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of results. Phases are illustrated by fig. 3.
The purpose and the scope of the LCA for packaging should be clearly defined, documented and consistent with the intended way of use. As fig. 3. shows, mentioned purpose and scope are reference points for the whole description and for all results.
When defining the purpose and scope following observations regarding the actual use of packing must be considered:
n The fact packaging is always used for goods leads to the close integration of packaging and distribution logistics system. Packaging is used to transport, protect and provide information to its users. It means that in LCA all closures, labels and packaging components like printing inks, etc. should be considered. On the other hand packaging is a part of goods distribution system. Any change in packaging itself results in packaging system changes, followed by, significantly environmental effects. For that reason packaging life cycle assessment studies should include system of goods distribution, collecting system and waste recovery and / or disposal processes.
n LCA should include all packaging (individual, collective, transport) used for packaging a particular product and all stages of life cycle (most packages accompany the goods only for a certain period of their life, i.e. until the sale or consumption). Packaging life cycle in connection with a product is shown on fig. 4.
Analysis of all levels of goods packaging and distribution (including transport) and the loss of goods resulting from the use of certain packaging should be accounted for and considered in the assessment of life cycle. This is portrayed in the following examples.
n Yogurt cups placed in a rugged transport boxes can be stacked in more layers, and fill the whole space in the transporting van. If one uses less resistant boxes (eg, with no additional reinforcing elements), due to the lower layers of cups damage, one cannot pile boxes on the full amount of the car. Then to carry the same amount of yogurt a transport company needs to make a greater number of rotations and consumes more fuel per tonne of transported goods. In this case in LCA increased emissions of harmful substances during transit and the profits achieved by using less packaging material should be compared.
n If the unit pack of yogurt is changed to minimize the weight, it could cause a reduction in its physical characteristics and lead to significant loss of the goods. Product waste affect badly the environment and in this case the structure of the transport package should be changed.
When talking about LCA performed for the packaging, the results refer to a quantity of goods, and the functional units –packaging – are expressed in units of weight of packaging material. For example, the results can be given in kilograms of packaging material needed to deliver one litre/kg of a particular product. LCA can concern total production of one product by one company or the whole market of a product in a certain region, if the analysis is used to optimize the distribution system. It is also important to take into consideration the requirements of the good. This could include: required packing durability, required protection during transport, quality of food preservation, protection from light, legal requirements connected with packaged goods (eg groceries), etc. Therefore the analysis done for packaging LCA packaged goods and their quality preserving, including losses on the way from producer to final user, should be taken into account. In the example of yogurt packaging in LCA one should consider the following issues:
n Kind of yogurt, i.e.:
– what is the quality of yogurt in different packaging,
– what requirements should be meet by packaging to be filled with yogurt, including those related to the transport.
n Providing of specific weight/volume of the good may be associated with the production of its larger quantity. Delivery of 1000 litres of yogurt to the final recipient normally does not mean manufacturing of 1000 litres, which results from losses generated during processing, packaging and distribution, including prolonged retention in the warehouse/shop. For example delivery of 1000 liters of yogurt may mean 1100 liters of manufactured yogurt.
n Providing of specific weight/volume of the goods may result in consumption of smaller quantities. Delivery of 1000 liters of yogurt usually does not mean consumption of 1000 liters of yogurt, which is a resulting of losses during consumption. Some yogurt is lost due to cling to the packaging, some might spill, some is ejected due to the expiry date, etc. For example providing of 1000 liters of yogurt may mean 800 liters of consumed yogurt.
In LCA analysis done for packaging it is also important to determine the boundary within which the analysis will be performed. This can lead to elimination of some processes related to the analysed commodity. However, some specific aspects of the packaged product should be taken into account when they are directly related to the packaging. Typical illustration of the limits within there is LCA performed shows fig. 4, when fig. 5. presents an example of border in packaging LCA.
Collection analysis for LCA for packaging should take into consideration principles set in norm ISO 14041. It includes procedures for collecting data and calculations leading to determine the quantity of materials and energy introduced to the unit process (input) and leaving the process (output). These inputs and outputs may include resources use and related emissions to air, water and soil. From these data can be derived an interpretation, depending on the purpose and scope of life cycle assessment. It should be emphasized that LCA methodology is still under improvement, and in the future current rules may be changed. This is one of the most difficult stages in Life Cycle Assessment. It needs data from many different sources that may be confidential and difficult to reach. The data collection itself is a time consuming process. Packaging and distribution systems are separate for certain companies, so it is difficult to draw general conclusions. For example the distance in the distribution and consumption models for individual countries are quite different, and LCA needs essential comparability. Data from databases often are often too general and difficult to apply in specific cases.
Life Cycle Assessment is one of many available tools of management for continuous modifying of packaging considering its environmental impact. These ratings concern entire lifetime of the packaging, ie gaining of materials, production of packaging, packaging process and functional characteristics, post-consumer packaging collection, recov
ery or disposal of waste. It should be emphasized the results may give rise both to improve the industrial processes associated with the production of packaging, as well as the same packaging. Another application of life cycle assessment is providing of appropriate support during in the new packaging designing. Comparative results for the various packages can be used as decision-making processes supporting elements. However, there is caution and prudence in results interpretation needed.
It is important to compare packaging by similar features, i.e. using a functional unit that enables to compare different packaging as objectively as possible. This means similar use, volume, performance, similar way of goods protection, requirements of safety, etc
According to the ISO standards for Life Cycle Assessment, in the case of comparison applications available to the public (comparison of different packaging used for a particular product), it should be critically reviewed (ISO 14040). Comparisons of results for different packaging, and in fact different packaging systems, should be made only in case of the same application. But this is not enough to ensure proper comparison, because there are differences in the limits of the system inevitably (e.g. rules for obtaining and producing raw materials), the functions of the system, assumptions, data quality, etc. Even small differences can have decisive consequences and inappropriate using of results can lead to erroneous conclusions. Such improper use of a set of life cycle analysis can be a problem for the packaging sector, as well as for users of packaging and should be avoided. Assessment of the durability of various materials used for the same packaging goal should be interpreted cautiously. There is no certainty one packaging material can perform the same functions as another.
Limits of LCA are time and geography. Main packaging features is its short life cycle and constant changes adapting the form, shape and performance to the changing tastes of customers. The main role of packaging should be the rationalization of goods distribution, leading to efficient use of resources in logistics and loss prevention by proper protection of the quality of goods. Therefore, packaging design should be an expression of balance between resources needed for adequate goods protection and customers preferences.
Optimized for efficient use of resources (including energy) distribution system is dependent on local conditions, which may be very different in every part of Europe. Connected with this is an aspect of own energy models used in different regions of Europe. Energy model choice reflects defined geographical boundaries in the distribution system.
Despite many restrictions, Polish scientific institutions have taken many attempt to use LCA methods in packaging evaluating [10], [11]. For instance, comparative ecological balances for glass and PET packaging made by Department of Products Ecology, Faculty of Commodity at Poznan University of Economics showed polyester packaging have a comparable, and in some cases even better [12], impact on the environment than glass containers. Interesting are also results of LCA for packaging cosmetic creams [13].
LCA method is also used for the evaluation of biodegradable packaging, which shows using of such packages helps to save energy and reduce emissions of carbon dioxide [14], [15].
3. LCA research tools and methods
Nowadays LCA is performed by using specialised software, there are several of those available. The most popular software to perform LCA is called SimaPro for Windows – by PRéConsultants, Netherlands. This tool enables to perform the LCA according to many methods stored in its database. One of the most common method is called Eco-indictor 99 and it will be discussed here. The method is based upon a method of eco factor, similar to the philosophy of G. Taguchi (quality is associated with the proper design)1, however instead of losses it calculates environment damage caused by the interaction of a particular process or product. Damage assessment is based on estimation of the burden assigned to particular categories of impacts. To reduce interaction amount and use easy to interpret impacts, the environment is defined as: a set of biological, physical and chemical parameters being conditions of both people existing and nature affected by people. These conditions include human health, ecosystem and natural resources quality, and correspond to the categories in which they have estimated the damage caused by the device or process.
Within the category „human health” there are factors such as number and duration of diseases, premature deaths due to environmental effects, and effects such as: climate change, ozone depletion, carcinogenic activity, the effect of radiation, difficulty breathing processes.
Category „ecosystem quality” includes impact on species diversity, particularly of vascular and lower plants and the following effects: ecotoxicity, acidification, eutrophication2 and ground operation.
Natural resources category includes the excess energy needed in the future for mineral extraction and mining of raw materials of inferior quality, and the impoverishment of construction materials, like gravel and sand, is considered as exploitation of the earth. So defined categories substantially correspond impact categories used in ecobalances, although not include noise and some of heavy metals.
Standard eco-factors are designed for materials, production processes, transport, energy and waste management. When calculating eco-factors for individual processes and full life cycle for all components are considered. Indicator refers to 1 kg of material. In case of production processes emissions from the process and emissions arising from energy use are considered, and the pointer refers to a unit of product obtained in the process. With regard to transport processes, the impact of emissions associated with extraction and production of fuels and fuel consumption in transport is taken into account. The calculations consider way of transport with the impact resulting from manufacturing of means of transport and transport infrastructure like airports, roads, bridges, ports. Analogous calculations are performed for the extraction of energy raw materials, processing and extraction of energy taking into account the average level of productivity, high and low voltage in the power and the technological level varied depending on the country of manufacture. In the energy processes indicators refer to units of energy like kWh, kJ.
Damage to human health is identified as a stream of pollutants expressed in tons. Models in this category of impacts was developed taking into account effects of carcinogens, affect the processes of respiration, climate change, ozone depletion and electromagnetic radiation. Losses connected with the human health refer to short or long term, partial or complete dysfunction of the body. The basic health-related harm are:
n infectious disease, coronary, breathing difficulty,
n cancer caused by electromagnetic radiation and ozone depletion,
n respiratory cancers and cancers caused by the presence of carcinogens in air, water and food.
Percentage of species that became extinct due to environmental impact in a certain area determines damage to the quality of the ecosystem. This category includes:
n eco-toxicity expressed as a percentage of all species living in the environment in terms of toxic effects – toxic stress; toxic stress is transformed to the observable damage,
n acidification and eutrophication modelled together as damage among vascular plants,
n exploitation and transformation of the earth's surface, estimation based on the occurrence of vascular plants as a function of land use and size of the area; damages are estimated at the local and regional level.
Eco-toxicity is defined by „potentially exposed fraction” expressed in percentage. In case of acidification and eutrophication as an indicator is used „potentially disappeared fraction (PDF)”, which refers to the disappearance of organisms recognized as strategic for the ecosy
stem and should occur it in a particular quantity, if there is no changes in the level of acidity or nutrients. In the case of land use there is also PDF useful, but only for all species. Here damage model refers to the local and regional conditions of processing and using of land. Local impact concerns changes in the number of species in the occupied or processed areas of the earth, and regional impact – changes in natural areas outside these areas. The unit expressing the damage of ecosystem is PDF referenced to the earth's surface during the year (PDF • m2 • year). Extraction of raw materials refers only to the mineral resources and fuel. Concerning raw materials needs in developing eco-factors, quality understood as concentration and the availability of the resource shall be taken into account. Current mining causes energy consumption increase in future production processes, because at the beginning are exploit deposits with the highest concentration and quality of raw material and the easiest conditions of extraction, which means lower cost than in the future.
Assessment of the validity of the consumption of raw materials is carried out taking into account both the energy needed for extraction of minerals, as well as their concentration. Damage is an expected increase in energy consumption relative to 1 kg of raw material. Eco-factor determination is carried out in three stages.
SimaPro contains a library of standard output data used in a product design development and search engine allowing access to all data types in software which operates in LCA checklist mode. This allows to select and enter data according to the order of LCA standard. In the set (inventory) analysis new processes can be created or one can choose an existing processes contained in the database/library or from other performed LCA’s. Creating a life cycle project starts with the definition of the product and semi-products in order to describe the structure of the product. Semi-product definition is particularly important when the design process includes device removing scenario and the phase of waste management. Estimation of influence can be carried out by various methods, also available in the program. The choice of method depends primarily on the act, if it concerns all kinds of influence necessary in the project.
Essential element of LCI phase of life cycle in SimaPro is constructing of a tree of processes, representing all relevant life cycle processes and links between them. In this program, a tree of processes includes processes containing environmental data and information about the economic inputs and outputs of processes and product stages which describe the product and the cycle of life. Processes tree established by the determination of the product in the project, in addition to visualization of processes, also display the results. Each tree table contains a bar chart, which can be used to demonstrate specific contribution of individual processes in final result. It may also indicate the contribution of each process in a particular category of influence, eg formation of acidification or single emission like carbon dioxide emissions.
SimaPro calculates LCA results and presents them in the form of a list of raw materials, processes and emissions associated with product yield. Such prepared statement cannot be interpreted directly because it does not include the assessment of significance of individual items to the environment. Product stages allow to model complex products and life cycles. Life cycles are central stages of products, they contain links to product, process, use, waste disposal scenarios, additional life cycles for complementary products, which are required to use basic product. End of life cycle is described by scenarios of dismantling, re-use of the product or its components, and waste management. Going through all the stages may occur repeatedly, both in order to make corrections, changes in assumptions, and to perform results” simulation. The ultimate result, in addition to processes improving and the most efficient life cycle choosing, is a possibility of comparing of environmental aspects of products [16].
Sample printout for LCA performed for a product like coffee maker is provided in fig. 6.
SimaPro software is widely used both in product development and improvement, strategic planning, marketing, etc., product eco-designing, environmental labelling and preparation of environmental statement of the product.
4. Example of LCA results for packaging
The world's largest study assessing the life cycle LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) carried out for the German market, rehabilitates disposable PET bottles comparing them to reusable glass bottles. Disposable PET bottles have a high value. This is unexpected, but the clear results of the largest scientific study conducted by the famous IFEU Institute in Heidelberg, Germany. This study was commissioned by Petcore, European trade association representing of PET beverage sector interests, and supported by companies from the German beverage industry.
Study carried out in August 2004 based on data from the production in 2002–2003, and for the first time used information from all companies involved in recycling of PET, from production to final recycling into new products. IFEU study meets all German and international standards for LCA (Life Cycle Assessment), and was reviewed by Prof. Dr. Walter Klöpffer, international LCA expert. According to his assessment the study is „innovative, comply with the LCA standards and as meticulous as never”.
The study, commissioned in May 2003, reflects the requirements imposed on the German market for packaging by the national environmental agency UBA. Reusable glass bottles were found environmentally friendly pattern and every package that does not meet that standard will be subject of mandatory deposit. IFEU experts compared all disposable PET bottles with glass bottles having regard to their importance in the market. In Germany dominate 1,5 litres disposable PET bottles, which compete with reusable glass bottles with a capacity of 0,7 l. For each of the eight environmental parameters such as greenhouse gases, natural resources use, acidity natural space use (priorities set by UBA) was used to convert units to 1 l.
LCA study results clearly show that in the system without deposit disposable PET bottles are as environmentally friendly as reusable glass. In a collection of post-consumer packaging with initial segregation for disposable PET bottles the effect of the environmental impact is similar to the effect caused by reusable glass bottles.
Under the conditions of the introduction of container deposit environmental performance of PET bottles worsen. It mainly results from the fact that most PET bottles with a deposit is sent for recycling to the Far East. The difference would disappear instantly if collected bottles were recycled in Europe.
IFEU study abolishes previous discriminatory classification of disposable PET. According to Petcore director Frank Koelewijn „ecologically equivalent packaging systems should be treated equally. PET should return to post-consumer packaging collection system with initial segregation, as it is in case of other friendly packaging. Mandatory deposit for PET packaging should be abolished or at least classified as equal to the cautions for reusable packaging. Currently in Germany, compulsory deposit for one-way packaging is 0,25 euro, and for reusable bottles 0,15 euro and its introduction is not mandatory 3.
The results of this LCA shows fig. 7.
As the diagram shows in the assessment the best results were attributed to a pouch bag, then PET bottle and glass thin-walled bottle.
5. Summary and conclusions
Analysis using LCA methods should be a part of developing concept of extended producer responsibility for the product and used by the industry as a key factor supporting process of making decisions associated with selection of packages to specific groups of products.
LCA for packaging will make the development of the impact of packaging on the environment knowledge possible. Its results can be used to focus on industrial sector, producing and using packaging on ecological requirements, and in society environmental education. Those questions will certainly be relevant in next years and equalize the level of ecological knowledge and awareness between old and new European Union members.
REFERENCES
[1] Rebitzer G. et al., Life cycle assessment, Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications”, „Environment International” issue 30/2004, pp. 701-720.
[2] Pennington D. W. et al., Life cycle assessment Part 2: Current impact assessment practice, „Environment International” issue 30/2004, pp. 721-739.
[3] PN-EN ISO 14040: 2000, Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework.
[4] Polish Ministry of Environment, February 2005: [http://www. mos. gov. pl/sipw/zintegrowana_polityka_produktowa/strategia_ZPP. pdf].
[5] CR 13910: 2000 Packaging – Report on criteria and methodologies for life cycle analysis of packaging.
[6] Anastas P. T., Lankey R. L., Life cycle assessment and green chemistry: the yin and yang of industrial ecology, „Green Chemistry” issue 2/2000, pp. 289-295.
[7] Górzyński J., Principles of environmental analysis of products and services, Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa 2007.
[8] Żakowska H., Deposit system as an instrument of packaging waste management – German example, „Ekopartner” issue 12/2003.
[9] Żakowska H.: Guidelines for packaging LCA and limitations, „Opakowanie” issue 11/2004, s. 20-23.
[10] Podsiadłowska A., Foltynowicz Z., Life Cycle Assessment – LCA, „Odpady i opakowania – nowe regulacje i obowiązki”, ed. Urbaniak W., Wydawnictwo FORUM, Poznań 2002.
[11] Lewandowska A., Foltynowicz Z., Podleśny A., LCA – Applications, „Problemy Ekologii” issue 3/2004.
[12] Podsiadłowska A., Foltynowicz Z.: LCA of beverages packaging, LCA in Practice [w:] „Odpady i opakowania – nowe regulacje i obowiązki”, ed. Urbaniak W., FORUM, Poznań 2002.
[13] Foltynowicz Z., Lewandowska A., Borowska W., Environmental assessment of selected hand creme packaging, „Ważenie Dozowanie Pakowanie” nr 2/2006.
[14] Davies G., Binney G., Song J., Murphy R., End of Life Management for Bioplastic Packaging, Conference for the Engineering Doctorate in Environmental Technology, End of Life Management for Bioplastic Packaging, 2005.
[15] Detzel A., Krueger M., Life cycle assessment of Polylactide (PLA). A comparison of food packaging made from NatureWorks PLA and alternative materials, IFEU, Heidelberg, July 2006.
[16] Adamczyk W., Ekologia wyrobów, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2004.
[17] Baran J., Presentation of LCA, POLSKI RUCH CZYSTSZEJ PRODUKCJI, Gliwice, 29 maja 2006.
[18] Parker G., Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon footprinting, A Ciba Expert Services Seminar From Waste to Energy: Innovative techniques for generating energy and reducing CO2 emissions, Rome, December 3-4, 2008.
1 Now eco-design is an integral part of quality design, without it processes of introducing a product to market are currently impossible. Particular importance among the methods of design, taking into account in defining a set of arguments, quality, environmental performance of the product or manufacturing process are: QFD (Quality Function Deployment) and a group of methods related to the design of experiments DOE (Design of Experiments), of which special on attention deserve method developed by G. Taguchi. In proecological designing an auxiliary role play diagrams and array data analysis. These tools can be used alone, however, applied in a comprehensive way complement each other in various stages of planning the ecological quality of the product or process.
2 Eutrophication – process of enrichment of water tanks in nutrients (increase of fertility of the waters). This applies not only to water tanks but also wastewater.
